7. VARIOUS TERMINOLOGY
guǐshén 鬼神: “positive & negative spiritual forces” and “spiritual beings”
Shen, the positive spiritual force means to expand; gui, the negative spiritual force means to return. These ‘spiritual forces’ are traces of creation, thus related to yang 陽 and yin 陰 respectively, and so could also be called ‘cosmic forces.’ In folk religions they are more literally ‘spiritual beings’ which exert force on the lives of men.
① Cheng Yi said, “Positive and negative spiritual forces are traces of creation.” Traces of creation refer to the operations of yin and yang that are manifest in the universe. –Chen Chun, An Explanation of Terms in the Four Books 25:2, tr. Chan
程子曰：鬼神者，造化之跡也。造化之跡，以陰陽流行著見於天地間者言之。
② Generally, shen 神 (“positive spiritual force”) means to expand (shen 伸), and expansion is material force in the process of growing. Gui 鬼 (“negative spiritual force”) means to return (gui 歸), and returning means the material force has already receded. – Chen Chun, An Explanation of Terms in the Four Books 25:3, tr. Chan
大抵神之為言伸也，伸是氣之方長者也；鬼之為言歸也，歸是氣之已退者也。
③ Devote yourself earnestly to the duties due to men, and respect spiritual beings but keep them at a distance. This may be called wisdom. – Kongzi, Discourses 6:22, tr. Chan
務民之義，敬鬼神而遠之，可謂知矣。
huángjí 皇極: “Majestic Ultimate”
The huangji is the sovereign (huang 皇) who is the ultimate standard (ji 極) of the empire. While the ‘Great Ultimate’ is the ultimate in the cosmos, which speaks to the general, the ‘Majestic Ultimate’ is the ultimate in civilization, which speaks to the specific. The virtue of the sovereign reaches the ultimate point, the limit, which sets the standard.
① Huang means the sovereign, and ji means that this person is the ultimate standard of the empire. – Chen Chun, An Explanation of Terms in the Four Books 14:1, tr. Chan
皇者，君也。極者，以一身為天下至極之標準也。
② Take the virtue of the sovereign. His virtue reaches the ultimate point and no more can be added. – Chen Chun, An Explanation of Terms in the Four Books 14:1, tr. Chan
若就君德論，則德到這處，極至而無以加。
③ The capital is the ultimate point from all directions. It is in the center and is the ultimate of the empire. All directions converge on it and can go no further. – Chen Chun, An Explanation of Terms in the Four Books 14:3, tr. Chan
商邑，四方之極，則以其居中為四方之極，而四方輻輳，至此而無以復加也。
yìlǐ 義理: “principles of rightness”
Yi means ‘what is right’ and li are the ‘organizing principles’ of nature. Thus when paired, yili means “principles of rightness” or “moral principles.” Principle is Heaven’s essence and what a thing should be, while moral principles are its right application in civilization.
① Principle is the specific principle of what the thing should be, while righteousness is that according to which the principle is applied. – Chen Chun, An Explanation of Terms in the Four Books 16:3, tr. Chan
理是在物當然之則，義是所以處此理者。
② What is it that we have in common in our minds? It is the sense of principle and rightness.– Mengzi, The Mengzi 6A:7, tr. Chan modified
心之所同然者何也？謂理也，義也。
③ That which is inherent in things is principle. That by which things are managed is moral principle. – Cheng Yi, An Explanation of Terms in the Four Books 16:3, tr. Chan
在物為理，處物為義。
lì 利: “profit”
Li refers to taking advantage of situations, to manipulate and exploit, in order to gain something for oneself. ‘Profit’ is distinguished by what selfish human feelings desire as contrary to what should be according to the Principle of Heaven, and is thus opposed to rightness (yi 義). Rightness and profit (yili 義利) often appear as an opposing pair.
① In terms of their meaning, rightness is what is proper according to the Principle of Heaven, while profit is what [selfish] human feeling desires. Desire means to wish to get something for oneself. – Chen Chun, An Explanation of Terms in the Four Books 24:1, tr. Chan
自文義而言，義者，天理之所宜；利者，人情之所欲，欲是所欲得者。
② From the student’s point of view, goods and wealth are needed for a livelihood and cannot be omitted. So long as one engages in profit-making when the business is proper and acquires a thing when the acquisition is correct, that is rightness. – Chen Chun, An Explanation of Terms in the Four Books 24:3, tr. Chan
在學者論之，如貨財亦是人家為生之道，似不可闕，但當營而營，當取而取，便是義。
③ The man of humanity rectifies moral principles and does not seek profit. He illuminates the Way and does not calculate on results. – Dong Zhongshu, An Explanation of Terms in the Four Books 24:10, tr. Chan
仁人明道不計功，正誼不謀利。
lǐ yuè 禮樂: “ritual & music”
‘Ritual and music’ (li 禮 and yue 樂) have been the fundamentals of social functions from ancient times. There must be reverence and joy in the mind, but without rites and music, how can it be seen? Yet if there are merely rites and music without this mind, how can they be substantial? It is by means of this that human affairs are brought into order and harmony.
① Rites are nothing but an order, and music is nothing but harmony. – Cheng Yi, An Explanation of Terms in the Four Books 22:3, tr. Chan
禮只是個序，樂只是個和。
② Centrality and harmony are what rites and music naturally are, and neither the basis nor the ornament can be neglected. Things like jade and silk, and sacrificial utensils, are ornaments of rites, and sounds and rhythm are ornaments of music. There must first be centrality and harmony, which are then ornamented with jade and silk, and sacrificial utensils, before rites and music are complete. – Chen Chun, An Explanation of Terms in the Four Books 22:1, tr. Chan
中和是禮樂之本。然本與文二者不可一闕。禮之文，如玉帛俎豆之類。樂之文，如聲音節奏之類。須是有這中和，而又文之以玉帛俎豆、聲音節奏，方成禮樂。
③ Rites and music are not two different things with no bearing on each other. As soon as there is order, there will be smoothness and harmony. When order is lost, there will be irregularity and disharmony. – Chen Chun, An Explanation of Terms in the Four Books 22:3, tr. Chan
禮樂亦不是判然二物，不相干涉。才有序便順而和，失序便乖而不和。
yīguàn 一貫: “one thread”
Yi represents undifferentiated principle (li 理) in its totality. Guan refers to this operating principle as it spreads throughout all of nature (wanshi wanwu 萬事萬物, “the ten thousand affairs and ten thousand things”). This concept originated from a statement made by Kongzi to his pupil Zengzi in Lunyu 4.15.