THE EVOLUTION OF LI 理
THE EVOLUTION OF LI
In The Words of The Sages Themselves
This document illustrates the philosophical development of li 理, in the words of the sages themselves, through quotes spanning 2,000 years. It is a companion to Wing-Tsit Chan’s 1964 essay “The Evolution of the Neo-Confucian Concept of Li,” and pulls the Classical Chinese for those referenced quotes, and more. These are listed below chronologically, with brief commentary selected from the essay. An English reference translation is also provided, often by Chan but including others to show different readings. In summary, the evolution of li 理 went from 1) to put to order, to 2) an order or pattern, to 3) the organizing principle [of Nature or Heaven], as illustrated by the following passages.
[ANCIENT ERA: IN MANY OF THE CONFUCIAN CLASSICS, SUCH AS THE ANALECTS (480 – 220 BC) AND GREAT LEARNING (500 – 200 BC), THE CHARACTER LI 理 DOES NOT OCCUR.]
Chan: Since li 理 is such a basic idea in Neo-Confucianism, and since Neo-Confucianism grew out of ancient Confucianism, one would expect the concept of li to be central in Confucianism from the very beginning. But such was not the case … It is not found in the Analects, the Spring and Autumn Annals, the Book of Etiquette and Ceremonial, the text of the Book of Changes, or the Great Learning.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
1. BOOK OF POETRY
In the Book of Poetry (1100 – 600 BC), li 理 occurs 5 times.
We define our boundary and ‘form’ (li 理) small divisions. And make the acres lie, here to the south, there to the east.
– Book of Poetry, Xin Nan Shan 1 [tr. Chan/Legge]
我疆我理、南東其畝。
Chan: The earliest occurrence of the word is probably in the Book of Poetry … in the sentence wo jiang wo li 我疆我理, which may be rendered to read, “We define our boundary and form (li) small divisions” … the implication [of pattern] is unmistakable, but the word is definitely used as a verb.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
2. BOOK OF HISTORY
In the Book of History (500 – 200 BC), li 理 occurs 1 time.
They discourse about the principles of reason and adjust the states, harmonizing and ‘putting in order’ (li 理) yin and yang.
– Book of History [tr. Legge/Chan]
論道經邦，燮理陰陽。
Chan: In a spurious part of the Book of History, it speaks of harmonizing and putting in order yin 陰 and yang 陽… the word occurs only once and does not denote principle.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
3. DOCTRINE OF THE MEAN
In the Doctrine of the Mean (400 BC – 200 BC), li 理 occurs 2 times.
It is characteristic of the superior man to be plain, and yet people do not get tired of him. He is simple and yet rich in cultural adornment. He is amiable and yet ‘systematically methodical’ (li 理).
– Doctrine of the Mean 33 [tr. Chan]
君子之道：淡而不厭，簡而文，溫而理。
Only the perfect sage in the world has … ‘pattern,’ ‘order’ (wenli 文理), refinement, and penetration, which enable him to exercise discrimination.
– Doctrine of the Mean 32 [tr. Chan]
唯天下至聖...文理密察，足以有別也。
Chan: In the Doctrine of the Mean, wen-li 文理 (pattern and order) is mentioned … and does not denote principle.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
4. BOOK OF CHANGES
In the commentaries on the Book of Changes (1000 – 300 BC), the character li 理 occurs 8 times, including as ‘moral principle’ 義理 and the ‘principle of nature and destiny’ 性命之理.
In ancient times in instituting the system of Change, the sages … harmonized with the Way and virtue, and laid down the order of ‘moral principles’ (yili 義理). Their teaching is to ‘investigate principle’ (qiongli 窮理) to the utmost and fully develop one’s nature until destiny is fulfilled.
– Commentaries on the Book of Changes [tr. Chan]
昔者聖人之作《易》也 ... 和順於道德而理於義，窮理盡性以至於命。
In ancient times, the sages instituted the system of Change in order to follow the ‘principle of the nature and destiny’ (xingming zhili 性命之理). Therefore yin and yang were established as the way of Heaven, the weak and the strong as the way of Earth, and humanity and righteousness as the way of man.
– Commentaries on the Book of Changes [tr. Chan]
昔者聖人之作《易》也，將以順性命之理，是以立天之道曰陰與陽，立地之道曰柔與剛，立人之道曰仁與義。
Chan: Li 理 appears in the commentary sections several times. In two of its instances it is used in the basic and original meaning of putting things in order. Once it is employed in the sense of pattern. The rest clearly express the sense of principle.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
5. BOOK OF RITES
In the Book of Rites (500 – 200 BC), the character li 理 occurs 33 times, often as the verb ‘to order,’ but also as ‘principle,’ including ‘moral principle’ 義理, ‘principle of the ten thousand things’ 理萬物, ‘Great Principle’ 大理, and the ‘Principle of Nature’ 天理.
The rules as instituted by the ancient kings had their radical element and their outward and elegant form. A true heart and good faith are their radical element. The characteristics of each according to the ‘idea of what is right’ (yili 義理, “moral principle”) in it are its outward and elegant form.
– Book of Rites, Rites in the Formation of Character 2 [tr. Legge]
先王之立禮也，有本有文。忠信，禮之本也；義理，禮之文也。
The rites should be suitable to the season, taken from the resources supplied by the ground, in accordance with the requirements of the spirits, and agreeable to the minds of men—according to the ‘characteristics of all things’ (li wanwu 理萬物, “principle of the ten thousand things”).
– Book of Rites, Rites in the Formation of Character 3 [tr. Legge]
禮也者，合於天時，設於地財，順於鬼神，合於人心，理萬物者也。
The energy of nature shoots forth and is displayed everywhere in all things, with ‘a great discriminating control’ (dali 大理, “Great Principle”) over their vast multitude.
– Book of Rites, Rites in the Formation of Character 14 [tr. Legge]
德發揚，詡萬物，大理物博。
It belongs to the nature of man, as from Heaven, to be still at his birth. His activity shows itself as he is acted on by external things, and develops the desires incident to his nature. Things come to him more and more, and his knowledge is increased. Then arise the manifestations of liking and disliking. When these are not regulated by anything within, and growing knowledge leads more astray without, he cannot come back to himself, and his ‘Heavenly principle’ (Tianli 天理, “Natural Principle”) is extinguished.
– Book of Rites, Record of Music 7 [tr. Legge]
人生而靜，天之性也；感於物而動，性之欲也。物至知知，然後好惡形焉。好惡無節於內，知誘於外，不能反躬，天理滅矣。
Chan: The term li 理 appears … chiefly as a verb, meaning to order. But here are also expressions of the ideas of moral principle, principle of the ten thousand things, and, most important of all, the Principle of Nature … The idea of li 理 as principle is well established in this Classic. However, its date is highly uncertain and is generally regarded as no earlier than the third century BC.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
6. MOZI
As for Mozi 墨子 (470 – 391 BC), in his text The Mozi the character li 理 occurs 13 times. Since the dates of the two previously mentioned Confucian Classics are uncertain, it might be the first to use the character to mean ‘principle’ and to pair it with ‘rightness’ 義.
Humane people remind one another of the principle of what should be accepted or rejected and the ‘principle of right and wrong’ (shifei zhi li 是非之理).
– Mozi, Book 9, Anti-Confucianism 6 [tr. Chan]
仁人以其取舍是非之理相告，
The way of the superior man is not to abide by what is ‘contrary to righteousness’ (buyi 不義) and not to practice what is ‘contrary to principle’ (feili 非理).
– Mozi, Book 9, Anti-Confucianism 7 [tr. Chan]
不義不處，非理不行，
Now, how can the rulers achieve security? They can obtain it by practicing principle. And one will naturally ‘follow principle’ (xingli 行理) when under good influence.
– Mozi, Book 1, On Dyeing 6 [tr. Legge/Chan]
凡君之所以安者，何也？以其行理也，行理性於染當。
Chan: It is not surprising that the idea of li 理 as principle should have originated in the Moist school, for, although the philosophy of Mozi is essentially utilitarian, he was groping for a higher standard of social behavior … In one case, it definitely means to put in order. In three other cases it may mean either principle or order. But in the three remaining cases there is not the least doubt that li denotes a moral principle.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
7. ZHUANGZI
As for Zhuangzi 莊子 (369 – 286 BC), in his text The Zhuangzi the character li 理 occurs 38 times, including for the first time ‘principle of the Way’ 道理. We would expect that Daoist metaphysics might develop it. While the Dao De Jing never uses it, we will see later that the Wang Bi and Han Fei commentaries explain dao 道 in terms of li 理 to provide it with a rational basis.
The cook laid down his knife, and replied to the remark, “What your servant loves is the method of the Dao, something in advance of any art. When I first began to cut up an ox, I saw nothing but the entire carcass. After three years I ceased to see it as a whole. Now I deal with it in a spirit-like manner, and do not look at it with my eyes. The use of my senses is discarded, and my spirit acts as it wills. Observing the ‘natural lines’ (Tianli 天理, “Nature’s patterns”), my knife slips through the great crevices and slides through the great cavities, taking advantage of the facilities thus presented.”
– Zhuangzi, Nourishing the Lord of Life 2 [tr. Legge]
庖丁釋刀對曰：「臣之所好者道也，進乎技矣。始臣之解牛之時，所見无非牛者。三年之後，未嘗見全牛也。方今之時，臣以神遇，而不以目視，官知止而神欲行。依乎天理，批大郤，導大窾，因其固然。
The Perfect Music first had its response in the affairs of men, and was conformed to the ‘principles of Heaven’ (Tianli 天理); it indicated the action of the five virtues, and corresponded to the spontaneity apparent in nature. After this it showed the blended distinctions of the four seasons, and the grand harmony of all things—the succession of those seasons one after another, and the production of things in their proper order.
– Zhuangzi, The Revolution of Heaven 3 [tr. Legge]
夫至樂者，先應之以人事，順之以天理，行之以五德，應之以自然，然後調理四時，太和萬物。四時迭起，萬物循生。
It is said that the lives of sages are just Heaven’s own activity … they rid themselves of wisdom and precedent, and follow instead ‘the inherent structures of the Heavenly’ (Tianzhili 天之理). Thus they are free from the calamities of Heaven.
– Zhuangzi, Ingrained Ideas 2 [tr. Ziporyn]
故曰：聖人之生也天行 … 去知與故，循天之理，故無天災；
The stranger said, “Similar things follow one another, similar tones respond to one another—that is certainly the way things ‘naturally fit together’ (Tianzhili 天之理, “the coherences of Heaven”).
– Zhuangzi, The Old Fisherman 3 [tr. Ziporyn]
客曰：「同類相從，同聲相應，固天之理也。
Delight in benevolence tends to disorder that virtue (as proper to the nature); delight in righteousness sets the man in opposition to what is ‘right in reason’ (li 理).
– Zhuangzi, Letting Be and Exercising Forbearance 1 [tr. Legge]
說仁邪，是亂於德也；說義邪，是悖於理也。
A frog in a well cannot be talked with about the sea—he is confined to the limits of his hole. An insect of the summer cannot be talked with about ice—it knows nothing beyond its own season. A scholar of limited views cannot be talked with about the Dao—he is bound by the teaching which he has received. Now you have come forth from between your banks, and beheld the great sea. You have come to know your own ignorance and inferiority, and are in the way of being fitted to be talked with about ‘great principles’ (dali 大理).
– Zhuangzi, Floods of Autumn 2 [tr. Legge]
井蛙不可以語於海者，拘於虛也；夏蟲不可以語於冰者，篤於時也；曲士不可以語於道者，束於教也。今爾出於崖涘，觀於大海，乃知爾醜，爾將可與語大理矣。
“If that is so,” said the Lord of the River, “then what is there valuable about the Way?” Ruo of the North Sea said, “He who understands the Way is certain to have command of ‘basic principles’ (li 理). He who has command of basic principles is certain to know how to deal with circumstances. And he who knows how to deal with circumstances will not allow things to do him harm.”
– Zhuangzi, Floods of Autumn 7 [tr. Watson]
河伯曰：「然則何貴於道邪？」北海若曰：「知道者必達於理，達於理者必明於權，明於權者不以物害己。
The myriad creatures all ‘differ in principle’ (shu li 殊理), and, since the Dao remains utterly detached, it deserves no recognition here. Deserving no recognition here, it makes no self-conscious effort; thus engages in no conscious action, yet nothing remains undone.
– Zhuangzi, Ze-yang 10 [tr. Lynn]
萬物殊理，道不私，故無名。無名故無為，無為而無不為。
The actualities of fame and gain are not in accord with ‘principle’ (li 理) and are not illuminated by the Way (dao 道).
– Zhuangzi, The Robber Zhi 2 [tr. Mair]
名利之實，不順於理，不監於道。
For this reason, Shen Tao abandoned knowledge and rejected self, acquiescing in inevitability. He was indifferent toward things and took this as his ‘principle of the Way’ (daoli 道理), saying, “When you know that you do not know, you will be one who disparages knowledge and tramples upon it.”
– Zhuangzi, Tian Xia 4 [tr. Mair]
是故慎到，棄知去己，而緣不得已，泠汰於物以為道理，曰：「知不知，將薄知而後鄰傷之者也。」
In the great beginning, there was non-being. It had neither being nor name. The One originates from it; it has oneness but not yet physical form. When things obtain it and come into existence, that is called virtue. That which is formless is divided [into yin and yang], and from the very beginning going on without interruption is called destiny. Through movement and rest it produces all things. When things are produced in accordance with the ‘principle of life’ (shengli 生理), there is physical form. When the physical form embodies and preserves the spirit so that all activities follow their own specific principles, that is nature. By cultivating one’s nature one will return to virtue. When virtue is perfect, one will be one with the beginning. Being one with the beginning, one becomes vacuous, and being vacuous, one becomes great.
– Zhuangzi, Heaven and Earth 8 [tr. Chan]
泰初有無，無有無名，一之所起，有一而未形。物得以生，謂之德；未形者有分，且然無間，謂之命；留動而生物，物成生理，謂之形；形體保神，各有儀則，謂之性。性修反德，德至同於初。同乃虛，虛乃大。
Chan: There are several important developments of the concept. The ideas of li 理 as pattern and putting to order are prevalent. In addition to coupling li with yi to be yili 義理 as in the Mozi, Zhuangzi coupled li with dao to be daoli 道理. For the first time in Chinese history li is equated with Dao. Furthermore, the idea of tianli 天理 as the Principle of Nature is exceedingly important. It eventually came to be the ultimate expression of li in Neo-Confucianism. What is more interesting is that Zhuangzi contrasted the Principle of Nature with human affairs, thus anticipating the sharp contrast of principle and facts in Chinese Buddhism … In short, many of the philosophical aspects of li which were later fully developed in Buddhism and in Neo-Confucianism are already contained in the Zhuangzi.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
8. MENGZI
As for Mengzi 孟子 (372 – 289 BC), in his text The Mengzi the character li 理 occurs 7 times, and there is only one relevant use. However this one use is significant as it is the first use of the binome ‘principle of rightness’ 理義.
Therefore I say there is a common taste for flavor in our mouths, a common sense for sound in our ears, and a common sense for beauty in our eyes. Can it be that in our minds alone we are not alike? What is it that we have in common in our minds? It is the sense of ‘principle and righteousness’ (yili 義理, “moral principle”). The sage is the first to possess what is common in our minds. Therefore moral principles please our minds as beef and mutton and pork please our mouths.
– Mengzi, 6A:7 [tr. Chan]
故曰：口之於味也，有同耆焉；耳之於聲也，有同聽焉；目之於色也，有同美焉。至於心，獨無所同然乎？心之所同然者何也？謂理也，義也。聖人先得我心之所同然耳。故理義之悅我心，猶芻豢之悅我口。
Chan: In 6A:7, Mencius said, “What is that thing which we have in common in our minds? It is li and yi.” In the saying that follows, li 理 and yi 義 are not only parallel, as in Mozi, but even combined to become the first instance of the binomy, meaning righteous principle or moral principle, a concept that was to become a cardinal one in Neo-Confucianism.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
9. XUNZI
As for Xunzi 荀子 (310 – 235 BC), in his text The Xunzi the character li 理 occurs 106 times, making it the largest in quantity thus far. It is paired as ‘order and pattern’ 文理, ‘moral principle’ 義理 and 道理, ‘principle of the world’ 天下之理, and ‘great principle’ 大理.
For one’s actions to be few and ‘well ordered’ (li 理) is called “being controlled.” For one’s actions to be many and ‘disorderly’ (luan 亂) is called “being wasteful.”
– Xunzi, Cultivating Oneself 3 [tr. Hutton]
少而理曰治；多而亂曰秏。
The work of the Heavenly King is to make perfect his practice of the Way and virtue, to achieve a lofty and elevated state, to reach the utmost in ‘proper form and good order’ (wenli 文理), to unify the whole world, and to set aright even the smallest matters, so that the whole world compliantly sides with him and submits to following him.
– Xunzi, The Rule of a True King 24 [tr. Hutton]
全道德；致隆高；綦文理；一天下；振毫末，使天下莫不順比從服，天王之事也。
There must be the civilizing influence of teachers and laws and the guidance of propriety and righteousness, and then it will result in deference and compliance, combine with ‘pattern and order’ (wenli 文理), and end in discipline. From this point of view, it is clear that the nature of man is evil and that his goodness is the result of activity.
–Xunzi, The Nature of Man is Evil 1 [tr. Chan]
故必將有師法之化，禮義之道，然後出於辭讓，合於文理，而歸於治。用此觀之，人之性惡明矣，其善者偽也。
In seeking profit, the gentleman acts with restraint. In averting harms, he acts early. In avoiding disgrace, he acts fearfully. In carrying out ‘the Way’ (daoli 道理, “pattern of the Way”), he acts courageously.
– Xunzi, Cultivating Oneself 2 [tr. Hutton]
君子之求利也略，其遠害也早，其避辱也懼，其行道理也勇。
Only if a man has arrived where he is by the proper way should you have dealings with him; if not, avoid him. If he is respectful in his person, then you may discuss with him the approach to the Way. If his words are reasonable, you may discuss with him the ‘principles of the Way’ (dao zhi li 道之理). If his looks are gentle, you may discuss with him the highest aspects of the Way.
–Xunzi, Encouraging Learning 16 [tr. Watson]
故必由其道至，然後接之；非其道則避之。故禮恭，而後可與言道之方；辭順，而後可與言道之理；色從而後可與言道之致。
The man in the street can become a Yu. What does this mean? What made the sage emperor Yu a Yu, I would reply, was the fact that he practiced benevolence and righteousness and abided by the proper rules and standards. If this is so, then benevolence, righteousness, and proper standards must be based upon ‘principles which can be known and practiced’ (kezhi keneng zhili 可知可能之理). Any man in the street has the essential faculties needed to understand benevolence, righteousness, and proper standards, and the potential ability to put them into practice.
– Xunzi, Man’s Nature is Evil 18 [tr. Watson]
「塗之人可以為禹。」曷謂也？曰：凡禹之所以為禹者，以其為仁義法正也。然則仁義法正有可知可能之理。然而塗之人也，皆有可以知仁義法正之質，皆有可以能仁義法正之具。
Those who are good at learning plumb exhaustively ‘the patterns of things’ (li 理). Those who are good at action overcome completely the difficulties of things.
– Xunzi, The Grand Digest 72 [tr. Hutton]
善學者盡其理，善行者究其難。
For everyone, the ability to know comes from human nature, and what can be known are ‘the underlying patterns of things’ (wu zhi li 物之理). If one takes the human ability to know that comes from human nature and uses it to seek the underlying patterns of things that can be known, but one has no point at which one will stop, then even with old age and the end of one’s years, one will not be able to cover them all.
– Xunzi, Undoing Fixation 14 [tr. Hutton]
凡以知，人之性也；可以知，物之理也。以可以知人之性，求可以知物之理，而無所以止之，則沒世窮年不能徧也。
Humanity is like the village where one dwells; morality like the gate to one’s dwelling. Where humane behavior is not the village where one dwells, there is no humanity. Where morality is not the gate through which one proceeds, there is no righteousness or justice. To extend kindnesses to others but ‘not in accord with natural order’ (bu li 不理) is not to perfect humane conduct. To proceed in accord with natural order but not to show due measure is not to perfect moral conduct (bu yi 不義).
–Xunzi, The Great Compendium 21 [tr. Knoblock]
仁有里，義有門；仁、非其里而處之，非仁也；義，非其門而由之，非義也。推恩而不理，不成仁；遂理而不敢，不成義。
The [moral principles] that have remained unchanged through the time of all kings are sufficient to be the central thread running through the Way. Things come and go, but if they are responded to according to this central thread, one will find that ‘the principle runs through all’ (liguan 理貫) without any disorder. He who does not know this central thread does not know how to respond to changing conditions. The essential nature of the central thread has never ceased to be.
– Xunzi, Discourse on Heaven 16 [tr. Chan]
百王之無變，足以為道貫。一廢一起，應之以貫，理貫不亂。不知貫，不知應變。貫之大體未嘗亡也。
To say that “Yao and Shun abdicated and yielded the throne” is to make a vacuous statement. It is the received tradition of shallow minds and the theory of rude provincials; it is a principle of the ignorant and those who rebel against obedience. It transmogrifies the small into the large, the perfect into the imperfect; it will never be possible with such a doctrine to reach up to the ‘Great Principle’ of the world (dali 大理).
– Xunzi 荀子, Correct Judgements 24 [tr. Hutton]
夫曰堯舜擅讓，是虛言也，是淺者之傳，陋者之說也，不知逆順之理，小大、至不至之變者也，未可與及天下之大理者也。
He who has such enlightenment may sit in his room and view the entire area within the four seas, may dwell in the present and yet discourse on distant ages. He has a penetrating insight into all beings and understands their true nature, studies the ages of order and disorder and comprehends the principle behind them. He surveys all heaven and earth, governs all beings, and masters the ‘great principle’ (dali 大理) and all that is in the universe.
– Xunzi, Dispelling Obsession 8 [tr. Watson]
坐於室而見四海，處於今而論久遠。疏觀萬物而知其情，參稽治亂而通其度，經緯天地而材官萬物，制割大理而宇宙裡矣。
Chan: In ancient Confucianism, extensive development of li 理 as principle took place not in Mengzi but in Xunzi … The word is used close to a hundred times, occurring on almost every other page. Aside from the many uses of the word in the sense of putting to order, the meaning of li as order and pattern (wenli 文理) is also very prominent. Likewise, the meaning of moral principle (yili 義理 or daoli 道理) is outstanding. What is more significant is that Xunzi not only talked about the principle of the world (tianxia zhi li 天下之理) but also “the great principle” (dali 大理).
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
10. HAN FEI
As for Han Fei 韓非 (280 – 233 BC), in his text The Hanfeizi the character li 理 occurs 84 times. It is paired as ‘patterns and principles’ 文理, and for the first time in Chinese history as ‘definite principles’ 定理. His commentary on Laozi is noteworthy.
Dao 道 is that by which all things become what they are. It is that with which ‘all principles’ (wanli 萬理) are commensurable. Principles are ‘patterns’ (wen 文) according to which all things come into being, and Dao is the cause of their being. Therefore it is said that Dao ‘puts things in order’ (li 理). Things have their ‘respective principles’ (wu you li 物有理) and cannot interfere with each other. Since things have their respective principles and cannot interfere with each other, principles are ‘controlling factors in things’ (weiwu zhi zhi 為物之制). Everything has its ‘own principle’ (yi li 異理) different from that of others, and Dao is commensurate with all of them [as one].
– Han Fei, Explanation of the Laozi 23 [tr. W.K. Liao]
道者，萬物之所然也，萬理之所稽也。理者，成物之文也；道者，萬物之所以成也。故曰：「道，理之者也。」物有理不可以相薄，物有理不可以相薄故理之為物之制。萬物各異理，萬物各異理而道盡。
In general, ‘principles’ (li 理) are what distinguish the square from the round, the short from the long, the coarse from the fine, and the hard from the brittle. Accordingly, it is only after ‘principles become definite’ (dingli 定理) that things can attain Dao. Thus, definite principles include those of existence and extinction, of life and death, and of rise and fall.
– Han Fei, Explanation of the Laozi 25 [tr. W.K. Liao]
凡理者，方圓、短長、麤靡、堅脆之分也。故理定而後可得道也。故定理有存亡，有死生，有盛衰。
Chan: It is important to note that the idea of definite principles is encountered here for the first time. But the more important point to note is that for the first time in the history of Chinese thought, Dao 道 is explained in terms of li 理. This development in Han Fei has been generally taken, quite correctly, to be the most important step in the pre-Han era in the development of li.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
[NEO-DAOIST ERA: AS THE HAN CONFUCIAN-AGE WEAKENED, SCHOLARS REACHED FOR ANSWERS IN THE CLASSICS AND THERE GREW A RENEWED INTEREST IN DAOISM.]
Chan: The issue of particular versus general li 理 became sharpened in the Wei-Jin period (220-420), notably in the persons of Wang Bi and Guo Xiang. The two philosophers represented diametrically opposite tendencies. Wang emphasized oneness and universality, whereas Guo emphasized multiplicity and differentiation. Wang stressed transcendence while Guo stressed immanence. Thus, although both were philosophers of the Xuanxue 玄學 (Metaphysical school), their thoughts ran in opposite directions.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
11. WANG BI
As for Wang Bi 王弼 (226 – 249), in his commentary on the Dao De Jing the character li 理 occurs 11 times. While Laozi never used the character, Wang explains ‘the Way’ 道 and ‘the Natural’ 自然 in terms of Nature’s ‘ordering principle’ 理. The same goes for his commentary on the “Book of Changes.”
My [Laozi’s] teaching of others does not consist in forcing them to follow what I teach but of helping them make use of ‘the Natural’ (ziran 自然), which I sight as ‘perfect principle’ (zili 至理), compliance with which means good fortune and opposition to which means misfortune.
– Wang Bi, Commentary on the Dao De Jing ch. 42 [tr. Lynn]
我之非強使人從之也，而用夫自然，舉其至理，順之必吉，違之必凶。故人相教，違之自取其凶也，亦如我之教人，勿違之也。
Heaven and Earth let ‘that-which-is-of-itself-what-it-is’ (ziran 自然) come into effect. They are without interference [with the result that] the ten thousand kinds of entities spontaneously ‘order and regulate’ each other (zhili 治理).
– Wang Bi, Commentary on the Dao De Jing ch. 5 [tr. Wagner]
天地任自然，無為無造，萬物自相治理。
They [the drum and flute] discard their selves and put themselves at the service of other entities so that there is ‘none that is not well ordered’ (mobu li 莫不理, “in no cases not ordered”).
– Wang Bi, Commentary on the Dao De Jing ch. 5 [tr. Wagner]
棄己任物，則莫不理。
When obscure, it is through ‘principles’ (li 理) that things achieve distinctness; when turbid, it is by stilling that things achieve clarity; and, when quiet it is by stirring that things come alive. This is the Dao of nature (ziran zhi dao 自然之道).
– Wang Bi, Commentary on the Dao De Jing ch. 15 [tr. Lynn]
夫晦以理物則得明，濁以靜物則得清，安以動物則得生，此自然之道也。
Although the roads of thinking are manifold, what they lead to is the same end; although the thoughts are hundredfold, what they are directed to is one. The ‘ways have a Great Eternal’ (dao you dachang 道有大常). The ‘ordering principles have a Great Purport’ (li you dazhi 理有大致).
– Wang Bi, Commentary on the Dao De Jing ch. 47 [tr. Wagner]
途雖殊而同歸也，慮雖百而其致一也。道有大常，理有大致。
Things never err, they ‘always follow their principles’ (bi you qi li 必由其理). There is the chief to unite them, and there is the leader to group them together.
– Wang Bi, Simple Exemplifications of the Book of Changes 1.3 [tr. Chan]
物无妄然，必由其理。统之有宗，会之有元。
Chan: With Wang Bi, li 理 became more important than Dao 道. In commenting on ch. 42 of the Laozi, for example, he equates “the natural” (ziran 自然) not with Dao but with principle. This priority of li over Dao characterizes his whole commentary on the Book of Changes as well as his commentary on the Laozi … This passage [Book of Changes 1.3] is of tremendous importance because it clearly and definitely enunciates the doctrine that li is the unifying principle of all existence. It is what Wang calls the “ultimate principle” (zhili 至理) … To him, “There is nothing which is not tied to li.”
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
12. GUO XIANG
As for Guo Xiang 郭象 (252 – 312), in his commentary on The Zhuangzi the character li 理 occurs 194 times. Guo uses ‘natural principle’ 自然之理, ‘principle of nature’ 天理, and other combinations. Along with Wang Bi, these Confucian “Neo-Daoists” pave the way for the Song Dynasty synthesis.
It is because the Dao has no boundaries that each of the myriad things can fully realize the limits its own potential. Each presents different distinctions (yibian 異便). All things are subject to ‘principle’ (li 理); every matter is subject to inclination (yi 宜). Things divide up according to kind and distinctions are made according to category.
– Guo Xiang, Commentary on the Zhuangzi ch. 2 [tr. Lynn]
道無封故，萬物得恣其分域。各異便也。物物有理，事事有宜。羣分而𩔖別也。
Know therefore that rulers and subjects, superiors and inferiors, hands and feet, and the outer and the inner are all results of ‘the spontaneous workings of natural principles’ (tianli ziran 天理自然).
– Guo Xiang, Commentary on the Zhuangzi ch. 2 [tr. Lynn]
故知君臣、上下、手足、外內乃天理自然。
One is born quiet, for this is one’s original nature (xing 性) as endowed by Heaven. Stimulated by things, one becomes agitated, which is due to the desire in one’s nature. Things that stimulate one are infinite in number, so if one pursues one’s desires without restraint, one’s sense of ‘natural principle’ (tianli 天理) will be ruined.
– Guo Xiang, Commentary on the Zhuangzi ch. 6 [tr. Lynn]
人生而靜，天之性也；感物而動，性之欲也。物之感人無窮，人之逐欲無節，則天理滅矣。
This passage [“he climbed high yet trembled not with fear, entered water yet did not drown, and entered fire yet did not burn”] describes how one whose knowledge ascended to the Dao 道 could go so far as this. It was his ‘inherent realization of principle’ (ligu ziquan 理固自全) that kept himself whole and safe and not his fear of death.
– Guo Xiang, Commentary on the Zhuangzi ch. 6 [tr. Lynn]
言夫知之，登至於道者，若此之逺也。理固自全，非畏死也。
Chan: Like Wang Bi, Guo Xiang interpreted Dao 道 in terms of li 理. In his philosophical system, li occupies a very predominant position. In fact, the word occurs almost one hundred times in his commentary on the Zhuangzi, more than twice as many as in Wang Bi’s writings. He, too, holds on to the concepts of natural principle, necessary principle, moral principles, the principle of Nature, and general principle … But there is a fundamental difference between the ultimate principle of Wang Bi and that of Guo Xiang. Unlike that of Wang which is one and transcendental, the ultimate principle of Guo Xiang is many and immanent. He said that “everything has its principle,” and that “the many principles arise.”
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
[BUDDHIST ERA: THE DEVELOPMENT OF LI IN THE BUDDHIST AGE WAS SIGNIFICANT, CONTINUING SOME THEMES OF NEO-DAOISM AND PAVING THE WAY FOR THE NEO-CONFUCIAN ERA.]
Chan: It was Wang Bi who prepared the transition from the Neo-Daoist development of li 理 to its development in Buddhism. From the fourth century on, for several hundred years, the evolution of li did not take place in Taoism or Confucianism but in Buddhism. The connecting link between Neo-Taoism and Buddhism was Wang Bi, who had already set the pattern of li as a pure absolute. The Buddhist side of the link was Zhi Dun.
Sol: I have not been able to locate the Classical Chinese for the Buddhist quotes yet.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
13. ZHI DUN
As for Zhi Dun 支遁 (314 – 366), in his Introduction to Essential Excerpts, he said…
Principle is not transformation and transformation is not principle … all the myriad transformations are outside of principle.
– Zhi Dun, Introduction to Essential Excerpts [tr. Chan]
Ultimate non-being is empty and vacuous without anything. … [But] Non-being is not non-being in itself, and li is not li in itself.
– Zhi Dun, Introduction to Essential Excerpts [tr. Chan]
Chan: The first Buddhist who accentuated the trend toward li 理 was Zhi Dun … Zhi Dun’s interpretation of li was of such importance that his follower, Chi Chao 郗超 (336-377), spoke of him in terms of “spiritual principle (shenli 神理) penetrating everywhere” and “true principle (zhenli 眞理) never interrupted.” Note the terms “spiritual principle” and “true principle.” The element of mystery is now enhanced, over and above the li of Wang Bi.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
14. HUIYUAN
As for Huiyuan 慧遠 (334 – 416), in his Essays Spreading and Elucidating the Doctrine, he said…
When there is a basis to unite them [things], then li 理 (“principle”) becomes ming 冥 (“obliterated”).
– Huiyuan, Essays Spreading and Elucidating the Doctrine [tr. Chan]
In its operation of things, the Law-body shows their beginning without its own involvement with things … Principle remains profound outside of the myriad transformations.
– Huiyuan, Essays Spreading and Elucidating the Doctrine [tr. Chan]
Chan: The note of ming 冥 had been struck by Neo-Daoists, especially Guo Xiang. It became increasingly strong in Huiyuang … Perhaps his most important saying referring to li 理 is this: “When there is a basis to unite them (things), then li becomes ming.” … What is this ultimate? It is none other than the Law-body. He said, “In its operation of things, the Law-body shows their beginning without its own involvement with things … Principle remains profound outside of the myriad transformations.” Since to Huiyuan the Law-body is the same as Nirvana, li is used to describe the state.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
15. SENGZHAO
As for Sengzhao 僧肇 (384 – 414), in Sengzhao’s Treatise he said…
There is nothing that li 理 does not unite.
– Sengzhao, Sengzhao’s Treatise [tr. Chan]
To investigate principle and develop one’s nature is the way to reach the ultimate.
– Sengzhao, Sengzhao’s Treatise [tr. Chan]
In Nirvana, or the ultimate state, the ultimate truth is excellent and one, without error, and that is li 理.
– Sengzhao, Sengzhao’s Treatise [tr. Chan]
Chan: Sengzhao described li 理 as vacuity (xu 虛) and origin (yuan 元). As these are Daoist terms, we can readily see that Daoist influence was still at work. An even stronger Daoist influence is found in his emphasis that li is free from words and observable facts (liyanji 離言迹) … Not only did the Daoist element remain strong in Sengzhao, but a Confucian note was now introduced. He said that to investigate principle and develop one’s nature is the way to reach the ultimate … The most important contribution Sengzhao made to the development of the concept of li, however, is his definite identification of it with Nirvana.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
16. DAOSHENG
As for Daosheng 道生 (360 – 434), in the Biographies of Eminent Monks he said…
Li is revealed only when words are silenced.
– Daosheng, Biographies of Eminent Monks [tr. Chan]
When one is deluded, there will be the differentiated manifestations.
– Daosheng, Biographies of Eminent Monks [tr. Chan]
To become a Buddha the fundamental thing is to investigate principle.
– Daosheng, Biographies of Eminent Monks [tr. Chan]
When principle has been investigated and nature has been developed, all will be saved.
– Daosheng, Biographies of Eminent Monks [tr. Chan]
Chan: With all this development, it was inevitable that a climax was to be reached. It was reached in Daosheng. All the elements in Zhi Dun, Hui Yuan, and Sengzhao are synthesized in him. The Confucian term “the investigation of principle” is not only entertained but made the way to Buddhahood! Thus the Confucian investigation of principle and development of nature have become the chief means of Buddhist salvation.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
17. FAZANG
As for Fazang 法藏 (643 – 712), in his Treatise on the Golden Lion he said…
The gold and the lion are mutually compatible in their formation, the one and the many not obstructing each other. In this situation, the principle and the facts are each different, but whether the one or the many, each remains in its own position. This is called the gate of mutual compatibility and difference between the one and the many.
– Fazang, Treatise on the Golden Lion [tr. Chan]
Principle and fact appear together and are completely compatible with each other.
– Fazang, Treatise on the Golden Lion [tr. Chan]
Chan: Principle and facts are now no longer mutually exclusive. As we shall see, this prepared for the development in Neo-Confucianism of the doctrine that principle is one while manifestations are many.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
[NEO-CONFUCIAN ERA: IN THIS AGE, THE THREE SCHOOLS—CONFUCIANISM, BUDDHISM, AND DAOISM—ACHIEVED A “GREAT SYNTHESIS,” AND LI REACHED ITS FULL DEVELOPMENT UNDER CHENGZI AND ZHU XI.]
Chan: It is amazing that while all these important developments were taking place from the fourth century on, Confucianism was completely out of the picture … But the concept has such a long history and is so fully charged with philosophical potentiality that the Confucianists could no longer ignore it. In the eleventh century, it became such a central concept in Confucianism that it came to be known as the School of Principle (lixue 理學), or Neo-Confucianism as it is known in the West.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
18. HAN YU & LI AO
As for Han Yu 韓愈 (768 – 824), the forerunner of the Confucian revival, he never used the character li 理. His contemporary Li Ao 李翱 (772 – 841) used the character 5 times, for example as ‘moral principle’ 義理, which was not significantly new.
Chan: Li Ao used the word li 理 only twice in his Essay on the Recovery of the Nature and only three times in his seven other essays, either in the sense of putting to order or moral principle. In the case of Han Yu, whose attack on Buddhism is well known, the word is totally absent in his philosophical essays or in the memorial to the emperor attacking Buddhism.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
19. ZHOU DUNYI
As for Zhou Dunyi, 周敦頤 (1017 – 1073), in his influential commentary on the Book of Changes the character li 理 occurs 5 times. As the pioneer of the Confucian revival, these uses helped guide the movement’s general direction.
Ceremonies are intended ‘to establish order’ (li 理) and music means to harmonize (he 和). Only when yin and yang operate according to order can they be in harmony. Then the ruler will truly be the ruler, the minister will truly be the minister, the father will truly be the father, the son will truly be the son, brothers will truly be brothers, and husband and wife will truly be husband and wife. All things must fulfill their ‘principle’ (li 理) before they are in harmony (he 和).
– Zhou Dunyi, Penetrating the Book of Changes ch. 13 [tr. Chan]
禮，理也；樂，和也。陰陽理而後和，君君、臣臣、父父、子子、兄兄、弟弟、夫夫、婦婦，萬物各得其理，然後和。
The myriad things are created and transformed out of the two material forces (yin and yang) and the Five Agents. These Five Agents are the basis of their differentiation while the material forces constitute their actuality. The two forces are fundamentally one. Consequently, the many are (ultimately) one and the one is actually differentiated in the many. The one and the many each has its own correct state of being. The great and the small each has its definite function.
– Zhou Dunyi, Penetrating the Book of Changes ch. 22: “Human Nature, Principle, and Destiny” [tr. Chan]
厥彰厥微，匪靈弗瑩。剛善剛惡，柔亦如之，中焉止矣。二氣五行，化生萬物。五殊二實，二本則一。是萬為一，一實萬分。萬一各正，小大有定。
Chan: Zhou Dunyi’s importance in this respect is great but subtle. It is great because Zhou is essentially the founder of Neo-Confucianism. He determined the direction in which Neo-Confucianism has developed and laid the pattern for its metaphysics and ethics … Commentators agree that the [above last] passage is an explanation of how nature and destiny work according to principle 理, as the title of the chapter indicates.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
20. SHAO YONG
As for Shao Yong 邵雍 (1011 – 1077), in his numeric-cosmology text the Supreme Principles Governing the World, the character li 理 occurs 86 times, and advances from prior use by Zhou Dunyi.
It is said in the Book of Changes, “Investigate principle to the utmost and fully develop nature, until destiny is fulfilled.” By principle is meant ‘the principle inherent in things’ (wu zhi li 物之理). By nature is meant nature endowed by Heaven. And by destiny is meant to abide in ‘principle and one’s nature’ (li xing 理性). How else can we abide in principle and our nature except through the Way?
– Shao Yong, Supreme Principles Governing the World, [tr. Chan]
易曰窮理盡性以至于命。所以謂之理，二物之理也。所以謂之性者，天之性也。所以謂之命，若處理性者也。所以能處理性者，非道而何？
By viewing things is not meant viewing them with one’s physical eyes but with one’s mind. Nay, not with one’s mind but with the principle inherent in things. There is nothing in the universe without ‘principle’ (li 理), nature (xing 性), and destiny (ming 命). These can be known only when ‘principle has been investigated to the utmost’ (qiongli 窮理), when nature is completely developed, and when destiny is fulfilled. The knowledge of these three is true knowledge. Even the sage cannot go beyond it. Whoever goes beyond it cannot be called a sage.
– Shao Yong, Supreme Principles Governing the World, [tr. Chan]
朱天所以謂之觀物者，昨以目觀之也；非觀之以目，而觀之以心也，非觀之以心，而觀之以理也。大下之物，莫不有理焉，莫不有性焉，莫不有命焉。所以謂之理者，窮之而後可知袂，所以謂之性者，盡之而後可知也，所以謂宴命，若至之而後可知也。此三知者，天下之真雹，雖聖人知以過之也，而過之者，非所瑟謂之聖人也。
Forms come from physical shapes, and number comes from substance. Names come from language, while concepts come from function. All numbers in the world are derived from ‘principle’ (li 理). If principle is violated, they will be degenerated into divination techniques. Ordinary people associate numbers with divination techniques and therefore they are not associated with principle.
– Shao Yong, Supreme Principles Governing the World [tr. Chan]
象起於形，數起於貿，二起於呂，意起於用。天下之數出於理，違乎理則入於術，世人以數而入術，故失於理也。
Calamity will fall on those who violate the ‘Principle of Nature’ (tianli 天理).
– Shao Yong, Supreme Principles Governing the World [tr. Chan]
通天理者，患禍勝至。
Chan: Shao Yong equally stresses the investigation of principle and development of nature … To him, the most important element in existence is number, for universal operation, or Change, is due to spirit, which gives rise to number, number to form, and form to concrete things. And number comes out of principle. Thus the idea of principle pervades his whole philosophical system, which is definitely an advance over Zhou Dunyi.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
21. ZHANG ZAI
As for Zhang Zai 張載 (1020 – 1077), in his Collected Works the character li 理 occurs 1,120 times, by far the most of any text so far. This makes it difficult to sift through and locate key passages. Therefore the following quotes mostly pull from Zhu Xi’s selections in “Reflections on Things at Hand.”
If one ‘investigates principle to the utmost’ (qiongli 窮理) and fully develops his nature, then his nature will be in accord with the character of Heaven and his destiny will be in accord with the ‘Principle of Heaven’ (Tianli 天理, “order of Nature”).
– Zhang Zai, Reflections on Things at Hand 2.81 [tr. Chan]
窮理盡性，則性天德，命天理。
Those who understand the higher things return to the ‘Principle of Nature’ (Tianli 天理), while those who understand the lower things follow human desires (renyu 人欲).
– Zhang Zai, Reflections on Things at Hand 2.85 [tr. Chan]
上達反天理，下達徇人欲者歟！
Vacuity is spoken of in terms of principle. When ‘principle and material force’ are combined (li yu qi 理與氣), man and things are produced. They receive principle and material force to constitute their nature, and then we have the name “nature” (xing 性). The nature comes from principle but is not separated from material force, while consciousness comes from material force but is not separated from principle. The mind comes into existence when nature and consciousness are combined, and then we have the name “mind” (xin 心).
– Zhang Zai, Reflections on Things at Hand 3.11 [tr. Chan]
虛是以理言，理與氣合，遂生人物。人物受得去成這性，於是乎方有性之名。性從理來，不離氣。知覺從氣來，不離理。合性與知覺，遂成這心，於是乎方有心之名。
All affairs are but one ‘Principe of Nature’ (Tianli 天理).
– Zhang Zai, Collected Works of Zhang Zai [tr. Chan]
萬事止一天理。
Chan: The concept of li 理 is even more prominent in Zhang Zai. The word appears on almost every other page of his works. To him, principle underlies all existence. “All things possess principle,” he says, and “all affairs are but one Principle of Nature.” By principle things necessarily come into being, and because of it nothing is isolated. It is in accordance with the principle of things that they are in harmony and do not err, that they have an order, and that they can transcend spirit. In short, all things, whether natural or human, are governed by principle.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
21. THE CHENG BROTHERS
As for Cheng Hao 程顥 (1032 – 1085) and Cheng Yi 程颐 (1033–1107), in their Complete Works the character li 理 occurs 951 times. It forms the basis of their philosophy: as there is being, there must be principle underlying it. Everything has its principle, yet all principles are one.
All things under heaven can be understood in the light of their principle. As there are things, there must be their specific principles. ‘One thing necessarily has one principle’ (yiwu yili 一物一理).
– Cheng Yi, Complete Works of the Two Chengs [tr. Chan]
天下物皆可以理照，有物必有則，一物須有一理。
‘All things have their principle’ (wanwu jie youli 萬物皆有理). It is easy for a thing to function if it is in accord with principle but difficult if it violates it. When everything follows its own principle, what is the necessity of one’s own hard toil?
– Cheng Hao, Complete Works of the Two Chengs [tr. Chan]
萬物皆有理，順之則易，逆之則難。各循其理，何勞於己力哉？
There is only ‘one principle’ in the world (yili 一理). You may extend it over the four seas and it is everywhere true. It is the unchangeable principle that can be laid before Heaven and Earth.
– Cheng Brothers, Complete Works of the Two Chengs [tr. Chan]
理則天下只是一箇理，故推至四海而凖；須是質諸天地。
The Western Inscription makes it clear that ‘principle is one but its manifestations are many’ (liyi fenshu 理一而分殊, the popularized phrase), but Mozi’s teachings involve two bases without differentiation.
– Cheng Yi, Complete Works of the Two Chengs [tr. Chan]
西銘明理一而殊，墨瓦則一本而無分。
With regard to the ‘Principle of Nature’ (Tianli 天理), where is the limit of this principle? It does not exist because of (sage-emperor) Yao; nor does it cease to exist because of (wicked king) Jie. When possessed by man it is not increased because he becomes prominent and it is not decreased because he does not. This being the case, how can we speak of its existence or non-existence or its being increased or decreased? Originally it lacks nothing. All principles are sufficient in themselves.
– Cheng Brothers, Complete Works of the Two Chengs [tr. Chan]
天理云者，這一箇道理更有甚窮，已不為堯存，不為桀亡。人得之者，故大行不加，窮居不損。這上頭來，更怎生說得存亡加減是佗？元無少欠，百理具備。
To investigate things (gewu 格物) in order to ‘understand principle to the utmost’ (qiongli 窮理) does not mean that it is necessary to investigate all things in the world. One has only to investigate the principle in one thing or one event to the utmost and the principle in other things or events can then be inferred. For example, when we talk about filial piety, we must find out what constitutes filial piety. If principle cannot be investigated to the utmost in one event, investigate another. One may begin with either the easy or the most difficult, depending on the degree of one’s capacity. There are thousands of tracks and paths to go to the capital. Yet one can enter if he has found just one way. Principle can be investigated to the utmost [in this way] because all things share the same principle. Even the most insignificant of things and events has this principle.
– Cheng Yi, Complete Works of the Two Chengs [tr. Chan]
格物窮理，非是要盡窮天下之物，但於一事上窮盡，其他可以類推。至如言孝，其所以為孝者，如何窮理？一無此二字。如一事上窮不得，且別窮一事，或先其易者，或先其難者，各隨人㴱淺。如千蹊萬徑，皆可適國，但得一道入得便可。所以能窮者，只為萬物皆是一理。至如一物一事，雖小，皆有是理。
‘There is principle in everything’ (yiwu yili 一物一理, “one thing; one principle”), and one must investigate principle to the utmost. There are many ways to do this. One way is to read books and elucidate moral principles. Another way is to discuss people and events of the past and present, and to distinguish which are right and which are wrong. Still another way is to handle affairs and settle them in the proper way. All these are ways to investigate the principle of things exhaustively. Someone asked: In investigating things, is it necessary to investigate every thing or can one know all principles by investigating only one thing? Answer: How can one understand everything like this? Even Yanzi would not dare say he could readily understand all principles by investigating only one thing. One must investigate one item today and another item tomorrow. When one has accumulated much knowledge he will naturally achieve a thorough understanding like a sudden release.
– Cheng Yi, Complete Works of the Two Chengs [tr. Chan]
凡一物上有一理，須是窮致其理。窮理亦多端：或讀書講明義理，或論古今人物，別其是非，或應事接物而處其當，皆窮理也。或問：格物須物，物格之還只格一物而萬理皆知，曰：怎生便㑹該通？若只格一物便通衆理，雖顔子亦不敢如此道。須是今日格一件，明日又格一件，積習既多，然後脫然自有貫通處。
Chan: They made principle *the* basis of their philosophy … To the Cheng brothers principle is not an abstract reality but a moral law. It is both natural and moral, as it is both universal and particular. Besides, it is dynamic and vital; it is the principle of unceasing production and reproduction. It is not an exaggeration to say that the two Chengs brought the development of li 理 to the highest point. Not only is principle made the basis of the philosophy. The relationship between the one and the many has been provided with an explanation. And the method of understanding principle, that is, the investigation of things, has now been developed.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
23. ZHU XI
As for Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1130 – 1200), in his Collected Conversations the character li 理 occurs 10,494 times, dwarfing all other texts in quantity. As the Great Synthesizer, he quotes doctrine from prior texts, corrects and combines them coherently, and advances the concept as paired with ‘material force’ qi 氣.
‘Principle’ (li 理) is the substance of Heaven (Tian 天, Nature), fate is the function of principle.
– Zhu Xi, Collected Conversations 5:2 [tr. Chan]
理者，天之體；命者，理之用。
Fundamentally there is only one ‘Great Ultimate’ (taiji 太極, the sum total of principles), yet each of the myriad things has been endowed with it and each in itself possesses the Great Ultimate in its entirety.
– Zhu Xi, Complete Works 49:45 [tr. Chan]
本只是一太極而萬物各有稟受，又自各全具一太極爾。
Cheng Yi expressed it very well when he said that principle is one but its manifestations are many. When heaven, earth, and the myriad things are spoken of together, there is only ‘one principle’ (yili 一理). As applied to man, however, there is in each individual a ‘particular principle’ (gezili 各自理).
– Zhu Xi 朱熹, Collected Conversations 1:8 [tr. Chan]
問理與氣。曰：「伊川說得好，曰：『理一分殊。』合天地萬物而言，只是一箇理；及在人，則又各自有一箇理。」
Before there is the relationship between the ruler and the minister, there is the principle of that relationship. Before there is the relationship between the father and the son, there is the principle. It is not that originally there is no such principle and that only after there are such relationships is the principle put into them. Before the existence of things and affairs, their ‘principles’ (li 理) are already present.
– Zhu Xi 朱熹, Collected Conversations 95:78 [tr. Chan]
此言未有這事，先有這理。如未有君臣，已先有君臣之理；未有父子，已先有父子之理。不成元無此理，直待有君臣父子，卻旋將道理入在裏面！
Mind [of Heaven and Earth] definitely means being in control, but it is precisely ‘principle’ (li 理, “generative compossibility”) that is the controller here. It is not that outside this mind there is some other principle, or outside this principle there is some other mind.
– Zhu Xi, Collected Conversations 1:17 [tr. Ziporyn]
心固是主宰底意，然所謂主宰者，即是理也，不是心外別有箇理，理外別有箇心。
In the universe there has never been any material force without ‘principle’ (li 理) or principle without material force (qi 氣).
– Zhu Xi, Collected Conversations 1:6 [tr. Chan]
天下未有無理之氣，亦未有無氣之理。
Throughout the universe there are both principle and material force. ‘Principle’ (li 理) refers to the Way, which exists before physical form [and is without it] and is the root from which all things are produced. Material force (qi 氣) refers to material objects, which exists after physical form [and is with it]; it is the instrument by which things are produced. Therefore in the production of man and things, they must be endowed with principle before they have their nature, and they must be endowed with material force before they have physical form.
– Zhu Xi, Complete Works 49:25 [tr. Chan]
天地之間有理有氣。理也者，形而上之道也，生物之本也；氣也者，形而下之器也，生物之具也。是以人物之生，必稟此理，然後有性；必稟此氣，然後有形。
Fundamentally ‘principle’ (li 理) and material force (qi 氣) cannot be spoken of as prior or posterior. But if we must trace their origin, we are obliged to say that principle is prior. However, principle is not a separate entity. It exists right in material force. Without material force, principle would have nothing to adhere to.
– Zhu Xi, Collected Conversations 1:11 [tr. Chan]
此本無先後之可言。然必欲推其所從來，則須說先有是理。然理又非別為一物，即存乎是氣之中；無是氣，則是理亦無掛搭處。
Chan: In Zhu Xi the development of the concept of li 理 reaches its climax. Subsequent developments are important but are essentially variations of the same theme. Neo-Confucianism in the last seven hundred years has gone through several phases involving opposite schools. But in all cases principle is the basic concept; it is at once one and many; it is the moral law and must be followed; and it can be understood through the investigation of things. The point of controversy is where principle is to be found.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
24. LU JIUYUAN
As for Lu Jiuyuan 陸九淵 (1139 – 1192), in his Complete Works the character li 理 appears 804 times. As a contemporary of Zhu Xi and pioneer of Song Confucianism’s “School of the Mind” branch, Lu said that principle is to be found within one’s own mind.
‘Principle’ (li 理) is endowed in me by Heaven (Tian 天), not drilled into me from outside.
– Lu Jiuyuan, Complete Works 1:6 [tr. Chan]
此理本天所以与我，非由外铄。
The mind is one (xinyi 心一) and ‘principle is one’ (liyi 理一). Perfect truth is reduced to a unity; the essential principle is never a duality. The mind and principle can never be separated into two.
– Lu Jiuyuan, Complete Works 1:6 [tr. Chan]
心一心也，理一理也。至当归一，精义无二。此心，此理，实不容有二。
It is what Heaven has endowed in us. All men have this mind, and all minds are endowed with this principle. ‘The mind is principle’ (xinji liye 心即理也).
– Lu Jiuyuan, Complete Works 11:27 [tr. Chan]
天之𫠦以与我者即此心也。人皆有是心，心皆具是理，心即理也。
The universe is my mind, and my mind is the universe. Sages appeared tens of thousands of generations ago. They shared this mind; they shared this principle. Sages will appear tens of thousands of generations to come. They will share this mind; they will share this ‘principle’ (li 理).
– Lu Jiuyuan, Complete Works 22:15 [tr. Chan]
宇宙便是吾心，吾心即是宇宙。千万世之前有圣人出焉，同此心，同此理也。千万世之后有圣人出焉，同此心，同此理也。
‘Moral principles’ (yili 义理) inherent in the human mind are endowed by Heaven and cannot be wiped out. Those who are beclouded by material desires so as to pervert principles and violate righteousness, do so because they do not think, that is all.
– Lu Jiuyuan, Complete Works 32:13 [tr. Chan]
义理之在人心，实天之𫠦与，而不可冺㓕焉者也。彼其受蔽扵物而至扵悖理违义，盖亦弗思焉耳。
All things are luxuriantly present in the mind. What permeates the mind, emanates from it, and extends to fill the universe is nothing but ‘principle’ (li 理).
– Lu Jiuyuan, Complete Works 34:128 [tr. Chan]
万物森然扵方寸之间，满心而𤼵，充塞宇宙，无非此理。
Chan: Zhu Xi’s contemporary, Lu Jiuyuan took the view that “the mind is principle” … “What permeates the mind, emanates from it, and extends to fill the universe is nothing but principle.” He has never explained why this is the case.
⚬ ⚬ ⚬
25. WANG YANGMING
As for Wang Yangming 王陽明 (1472 – 1529), in his Instructions for Practical Living the character li 理 appears 369 times. He developed “School of the Mind” as started by Lu Jiuyuan, notably by providing a better explanation for the motto ‘the mind is principle’ 心即理也.
‘The mind is principle’ (xinji liye 心即理也). Is there any affair in the world outside of the mind? Is there any principle outside of the mind?
– Wang Yangming, Instructions for Practical Living 1:4 [tr. Chan]
心即理也。天下又有心外之事，心外之理乎？
In the matter of serving one’s parents, one cannot seek for the principle of filial piety in the parent. In serving one’s ruler, one cannot seek for the principle of loyalty in the ruler. In the intercourse with friends and in governing the people, one cannot seek for the principles of faithfulness and humanity in friends and the people. They are all in the mind, that is all, for ‘the mind and principle are identical’ (xinji liye 心即理也).
– Wang Yangming, Instructions for Practical Living 1:4 [tr. Chan]
今姑就所問者言之。且如事父，不成去父上求個孝的理？事君，不成去君上求個忠的理？交友治民，不成去友上民上求個信與仁的理？都只在此心。心即理也。
If the mind is free from selfish human desires and has become completely identical with the ‘Principle of Nature’ (Tianli 天理), and if it is the mind that is sincere in its filial piety to parents, then in the winter it will naturally think of the cold of parents and seek a way to provide warmth for them, and in the summer it will naturally think of the heat of parents and seek a way to provide coolness for them. These are all offshoots of the mind that is sincere in its filial piety. Nevertheless, there must first be such a mind before there can be these offshoots.
– Wang Yangming, Instructions for Practical Living 1:4 [tr. Chan]
此心若無人欲，純是天理，是個誠於孝親的心，冬時自然思量父母的寒，便自要求個溫的道理。夏時自然思量父母的熱，便自要求個凊的道理。這都是那誠孝的心發出來的條件。卻是須有這誠孝的心，然後有這條件發出來。
The master of the body is the mind. What emanates from the mind is the will. The original substance of the will is knowledge, and wherever the will is directed is a thing. For example, when the will is directed toward serving one’s parents, then serving one’s parents is a ‘thing.’ When the will is directed toward serving one’s ruler, then serving one’s ruler is a ‘thing.’ When the will is directed toward being humane to all people and feeling love toward things, then being humane to all people and feeling love toward things are ‘things,’ and when the will is directed toward seeing, hearing, speaking, and acting, then each of these is a ‘thing.’ Therefore I say that there are neither ‘principles’ (li 理) nor things (wu 物) outside the mind.
– Wang Yangming, Instructions for Practical Living 1:7 [tr. Chan]
身之主宰便是心。心之所發便是意。意之本體便是知。意之所在便是物。如意在於事親，即事親便是一物。意在於事君，即事君便是一物。意在於仁民愛物，即仁民愛物便是一物。意在於視聽言動，即視聽言動便是一物。所以某說無心外之理，無心外之物。
The original mind is vacuous (devoid of selfish desires), intelligent, and not beclouded. All principles are contained therein and all events proceed from it. There is ‘no principle’ (wuli 無理) outside the mind; there is no event (wushi 無事) outside the mind.
– Wang Yangming, Instructions for Practical Living 2:18 [tr. Chan]
虛靈不眛，眾理而萬事出。心外無理。心外無事。